Changes

====Placebo====

====Placebo====

[[Placebo]]s and placebo effects have generated years of conceptual confusion about what kinds of thing they are.<ref name="Grünbaum 1981">{{cite journal | author = Grünbaum A | year = 1981 | title = The Placebo Concept | journal = Behaviour Research and Therapy | volume = 19 | issue = 2| pages = 157–167 | doi=10.1016/0005-7967(81)90040-1| pmid = 7271692 }}</ref><ref name="Gøtzsche 1994">{{cite journal | author = Gøtzsche P.C. | year = 1994 | title = Is there logic in the placebo? | journal = Lancet | volume = 344 | issue = 8927| pages = 925–926 | doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(94)92273-x| pmid = 7934350 | s2cid = 33650340 }}</ref><ref name="Nunn 2009">{{cite journal | author = Nunn R | year = 2009 | title = It's time to put the placebo out of our misery | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 338 | page = b1568 | doi=10.1136/bmj.b1568| s2cid = 72382442 }}</ref><ref name="Turner 2012">{{cite journal | author = Turner A | year = 2012 | title = Placebos" and the logic of placebo comparison | url = https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/en/publications/placebos-and-the-logic-of-placebo-comparison(6426ce5a-ab57-419c-bc3c-e57d20608807).html| journal = Biology & Philosophy | volume = 27 | issue = 3| pages = 419–432 | doi = 10.1007/s10539-011-9289-8 | hdl = 1983/6426ce5a-ab57-419c-bc3c-e57d20608807 | s2cid = 4488616 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Holman|first1=Bennett|title=Why Most Sugar Pills are Not Placebos|journal=Philosophy of Science|date=2015|volume=82|issue=5|pages=1330–1343|doi=10.1086/683817|s2cid=123784995}}</ref> Example definitions of a placebo may refer to their inertness or pharmacological inactivity in relation to the condition they are given for. Similarly, example definitions of placebo effects may refer to the subjectivity or the non-specificity of those effects.<ref name="Shapiro & Shapiro 1997">Shapiro, A.K. & Shapiro, E., 1997. The Powerful Placebo, London: Johns Hopkins University Press.</ref> These type of definition suggest the view that when given a placebo treatment, one may merely feel better while not being ‘really’ better.

[[Placebo]]s and placebo effects have generated years of conceptual confusion about what kinds of thing they are.<ref name="Grünbaum 1981">{{cite journal | author = Grünbaum A | year = 1981 | title = The Placebo Concept | journal = Behaviour Research and Therapy | volume = 19 | issue = 2| pages = 157–167 | doi=10.1016/0005-7967(81)90040-1| pmid = 7271692 }}</ref><ref name="Gøtzsche 1994">{{cite journal | author = Gøtzsche P.C. | year = 1994 | title = Is there logic in the placebo? | journal = Lancet | volume = 344 | issue = 8927| pages = 925–926 | doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(94)92273-x| pmid = 7934350 | s2cid = 33650340 }}</ref><ref name="Nunn 2009">{{cite journal | author = Nunn R | year = 2009 | title = It's time to put the placebo out of our misery | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 338 | page = b1568 | doi=10.1136/bmj.b1568| s2cid = 72382442 }}</ref><ref name="Turner 2012">{{cite journal | author = Turner A | year = 2012 | title = Placebos" and the logic of placebo comparison | url = https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/en/publications/placebos-and-the-logic-of-placebo-comparison(6426ce5a-ab57-419c-bc3c-e57d20608807).html| journal = Biology & Philosophy | volume = 27 | issue = 3| pages = 419–432 | doi = 10.1007/s10539-011-9289-8 | hdl = 1983/6426ce5a-ab57-419c-bc3c-e57d20608807 | s2cid = 4488616 | hdl-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Holman|first1=Bennett|title=Why Most Sugar Pills are Not Placebos|journal=Philosophy of Science|date=2015|volume=82|issue=5|pages=1330–1343|doi=10.1086/683817|s2cid=123784995}}</ref> Example definitions of a placebo may refer to their inertness or pharmacological inactivity in relation to the condition they are given for. Similarly, example definitions of placebo effects may refer to the subjectivity or the non-specificity of those effects.<ref name="Shapiro & Shapiro 1997">Shapiro, A.K. & Shapiro, E., 1997. The Powerful Placebo, London: Johns Hopkins University Press.</ref> These type of definition suggest the view that when given a placebo treatment, one may merely feel better while not being ‘really’ better.

The distinctions at work in these types of definition: between active and inactive/inert, specific and non-specific, and subjective and objective, have been problematized.<ref name="Grünbaum 1981" /><ref name="Miller & Brody 2011">{{cite journal |author1=Miller F.G. |author2=Brody H. | year = 2011 | title = Understanding and Harnessing Placebo Effects: Clearing Away the Underbrush | journal = Journal of Medicine and Philosophy | volume = 36 | issue = 1| pages = 69–78 | pmid = 21220523 | doi=10.1093/jmp/jhq061 | pmc=3916752}}</ref><ref name="Howick 2009">{{cite journal | author = Howick J | date = Sep 2009 | title = UQuestioning the methodologic superiority of 'placebo' over 'active' controlled trials | journal = American Journal of Bioethics | volume = 9 | issue = 9| pages = 34–48 | pmid = 19998192 | doi=10.1080/15265160903090041| s2cid = 41559691 }}</ref> For instance, if placebos are inactive or inert, then how do they cause placebo effects? More generally, there is scientific evidence from research investigating placebo phenomena which demonstrates that, for certain conditions (such as pain), placebo effects can be both specific and objective in the conventional sense.<ref name="Benedetti 2009">Benedetti, F., 2009. Placebo Effects: Understanding the mechanisms in health and disease, Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref>

The distinctions at work in these types of definition: between active and inactive/inert, specific and non-specific, and subjective and objective, have been problematized.<ref name="Grünbaum 1981" /><ref name="Miller & Brody 2011">{{cite journal |author1=Miller F.G. |author2=Brody H. | year = 2011 | title = Understanding and Harnessing Placebo Effects: Clearing Away the Underbrush | journal = Journal of Medicine and Philosophy | volume = 36 | issue = 1| pages = 69–78 | pmid = 21220523 | doi=10.1093/jmp/jhq061 | pmc=3916752}}</ref><ref name="Howick 2009">{{cite journal | author = Howick J | date = Sep 2009 | title = UQuestioning the methodologic superiority of 'placebo' over 'active' controlled trials | journal = American Journal of Bioethics | volume = 9 | issue = 9| pages = 34–48 | pmid = 19998192 | doi=10.1080/15265160903090041| s2cid = 41559691 }}</ref> For instance, if placebos are inactive or inert, then how do they cause placebo effects? More generally, there is scientific evidence from research investigating placebo phenomena which demonstrates that, for certain conditions (such as pain), placebo effects can be both specific and objective in the conventional sense.<ref name="Benedetti 2009">Benedetti, F., 2009. Placebo Effects: Understanding the mechanisms in health and disease, Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref>