Changes

'''Science''' ({{ety|la|scientia|knowledge}})<ref>{{OEtymD|science|accessdate= September 20, 2014}}</ref> is a systematic enterprise that [[Scientific method|builds]] and organizes [[knowledge]] in the form of [[Testability|testable]] [[explanation]]s and [[predictions]] about the [[universe]].<ref name="EOWilson1999a">{{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=E.O. |year=1999 |chapter=The natural sciences |title=Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity00wils_135 |url-access=limited |pages=[https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity00wils_135/page/n55 49]–71 |edition=Reprint |publisher=Vintage |location=New York, New York |isbn=978-0-679-76867-8}}</ref><ref name="Heilbron">"...&nbsp;modern science is a discovery as well as an invention. It was a discovery that nature generally acts regularly enough to be described by laws and even by [[mathematics]]; and required invention to devise the techniques, abstractions, apparatus, and organization for exhibiting the regularities and securing their law-like descriptions."— p.vii&nbsp;{{cite book| last= Heilbron | first= J.L. (editor-in-chief) | author-link=J. L. Heilbron| year= 2003 | chapter = Preface | title= The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science | pages = vii–X | location= New York |publisher= Oxford University Press | isbn= 978-0-19-511229-0 }}</ref><ref name="webster">{{cite dictionary |encyclopedia= Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |title= science |url= http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/science |access-date= October 16, 2011 |publisher= [[Merriam-Webster]], Inc |quote= '''3 a:''' knowledge or a system of knowledge covering general truths or the operation of general laws especially as obtained and tested through scientific method '''b:''' such knowledge or such a system of knowledge concerned with the physical world and its phenomena. |date=  |archive-date= September 1, 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190901035713/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/science |url-status= live }}</ref>

'''Science''' ({{ety|la|scientia|knowledge}})<ref>{{OEtymD|science|accessdate= September 20, 2014}}</ref> is a systematic enterprise that [[Wikipedia:Scientific method|builds]] and organizes [[Wikipedia:knowledge|knowledge]] in the form of [[Wikipedia:Testability|testable]] [[Wikipedia:explanation|explanation]]s and [[Wikipedia:predictions|predictions]] about the [[Wikipedia:universe|universe]].<ref name="EOWilson1999a">{{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=E.O. |year=1999 |chapter=The natural sciences |title=Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge |url=https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity00wils_135 |url-access=limited |pages=[https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity00wils_135/page/n55 49]–71 |edition=Reprint |publisher=Vintage |location=New York, New York |isbn=978-0-679-76867-8}}</ref><ref name="Heilbron">"...&nbsp;modern science is a discovery as well as an invention. It was a discovery that nature generally acts regularly enough to be described by laws and even by [[Wikipedia:mathematics|mathematics]]; and required invention to devise the techniques, abstractions, apparatus, and organization for exhibiting the regularities and securing their law-like descriptions."— p.vii&nbsp;{{cite book| last= Heilbron | first= J.L. (editor-in-chief) | author-link=J. L. Heilbron| year= 2003 | chapter = Preface | title= The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science | pages = vii–X | location= New York |publisher= Oxford University Press | isbn= 978-0-19-511229-0 }}</ref><ref name="webster">{{cite dictionary |encyclopedia= Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary |title= science |url= http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/science |access-date= October 16, 2011 |publisher= [[Wikipedia:Merriam-Webster|Merriam-Webster]], Inc |quote= '''3 a:''' knowledge or a system of knowledge covering general truths or the operation of general laws especially as obtained and tested through scientific method '''b:''' such knowledge or such a system of knowledge concerned with the physical world and its phenomena. |date=  |archive-date= September 1, 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190901035713/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/science |url-status= live }}</ref>

The earliest roots of science can be traced to [[Ancient Egypt]] and [[Mesopotamia]] in around 3000 to 1200 [[Common Era|BCE]].<ref name="Lindberg1">"The historian&nbsp;... requires a very broad definition of "science"&nbsp;– one that&nbsp;... will help us to understand the modern scientific enterprise. We need to be broad and inclusive, rather than narrow and exclusive&nbsp;... and we should expect that the farther back we go [in time] the broader we will need to be." &nbsp;p.3—{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = Science before the Greeks | title= The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context | pages = 1–20 | edition = Second | location = Chicago, Illinois | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref><ref name="Grant2007a">{{cite book | last= Grant| first= Edward | year = 2007 | chapter = Ancient Egypt to Plato | title= A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century | url= https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran| url-access= limited| pages = [https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran/page/n16 1]–26 | edition = First | location = New York, New York | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-052-1-68957-1}}</ref> Their contributions to [[mathematics]], [[astronomy]], and [[medicine]] entered and shaped Greek [[natural philosophy]] of [[classical antiquity]], whereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the [[Universe|physical world]] based on natural causes.<ref name="Lindberg1" /><ref name="Grant2007a" /> After the [[fall of the Western Roman Empire]], knowledge of [[History of science in classical antiquity|Greek conceptions of the world]] deteriorated in [[Western Europe]] during the early centuries (400 to 1000 CE) of the [[Middle Ages]],<ref name="Lindberg9">{{cite book | last = Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = The revival of learning in the West | title=The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context | pages = 193–224 | edition = Second | location = Chicago, Illinois | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn=978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref> but was preserved in the [[Muslim world]] during the [[Islamic Golden Age]].<ref name="Lindberg8">{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = Islamic science | title= The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context | pages = 163–92 | edition = Second | location = Chicago, Illinois | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn=978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref> The recovery and assimilation of [[Ancient Greek literature|Greek works]] and [[Science in the medieval Islamic world|Islamic inquiries]] into Western Europe from the 10th to 13th century revived "[[natural philosophy]]",<ref name="Lindberg9" /><ref name="Lindberg10">{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = The recovery and assimilation of Greek and Islamic science | title= The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context | pages= 225–53| edition = 2nd | location = Chicago, Illinois | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref> which was later transformed by the [[Scientific Revolution]] that began in the 16th century<ref name="Principe2011">{{cite book | last= Principe | first= Lawrence M. | year = 2011 | chapter = Introduction | title = Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction | pages = 1–3 | edition = First | location = New York, New York | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn= 978-0-199-56741-6}}</ref> as [[Scientific Revolution#New ideas|new ideas and discoveries]] departed from [[Scientific Revolution#Ancient and medieval background|previous Greek conceptions]] and traditions.<ref name="Lindberg1990">{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 1990 | chapter = Conceptions of the Scientific Revolution from Baker to Butterfield: A preliminary sketch | title=Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution | editor-first1 = David C. | editor-last1 = Lindberg | editor-first2 = Robert S. | editor-last2 = Westman | pages = 1–26 | edition = First | location = Chicago, Illinois | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-0-521-34262-9}}</ref><ref name="Lindberg14">{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = The legacy of ancient and medieval science | title= The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context | pages= 357–368| edition = 2nd | location = Chicago, Illinois | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref><ref name="Stanford Encyclopedia">{{Cite book|url= https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2016/entries/natphil-ren/|title= The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|last= Del Soldato|first= Eva|date= 2016|publisher= Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|editor-last= Zalta|editor-first= Edward N.|edition= Fall 2016|access-date= June 1, 2018|archive-date= December 11, 2019|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191211205744/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2016/entries/natphil-ren/|url-status= live}}</ref><ref name="Grant2007c">{{cite book | last= Grant | first = Edward | year = 2007 | chapter = Transformation of medieval natural philosophy from the early period modern period to the end of the nineteenth century | title= A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century | url= https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran | url-access= limited | pages = [https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran/page/n289 274]–322 | edition = First | location = New York, New York | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-052-1-68957-1}}</ref> The [[scientific method]] soon played a greater role in knowledge creation and it was not until the [[19th century in science|19th century]] that many of the institutional and [[Scientist|professional]] features of science began to take shape;<ref name="Cahan Natural Philosophy">{{cite book | editor1-last= Cahan | editor1-first= David | title= From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science | date= 2003 | publisher= University of Chicago Press | location= Chicago, Illinois |isbn= 978-0-226-08928-7}}</ref><ref>The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' dates the origin of the word "scientist" to 1834.</ref><ref name="Lightman 19th" /> along with the changing of "natural philosophy" to "natural science."<ref>{{cite book| last1 = Harrison| first1 = Peter| author-link1 = Peter Harrison (historian)| title = The Territories of Science and Religion| location = Chicago| publisher = University of Chicago Press| date = 2015| pages = 164–165| isbn = 978-0-226-18451-7| quote = The changing character of those engaged in scientific endeavors was matched by a new nomenclature for their endeavors. The most conspicuous marker of this change was the replacement of "natural philosophy" by "natural science". In 1800 few had spoken of the "natural sciences" but by 1880, this expression had overtaken the traditional label "natural philosophy". The persistence of "natural philosophy" in the twentieth century is owing largely to historical references to a past practice (see figure 11). As should now be apparent, this was not simply the substitution of one term by another, but involved the jettisoning of a range of personal qualities relating to the conduct of philosophy and the living of the philosophical life.}}</ref>

The earliest roots of science can be traced to [[Wikipedia:Ancient Egypt|Ancient Egypt]] and [[Wikipedia:Mesopotamia|Mesopotamia]] in around 3000 to 1200 [[Wikipedia:Common Era|BCE]].<ref name="Lindberg1">"The historian&nbsp;... requires a very broad definition of "science"&nbsp;– one that&nbsp;... will help us to understand the modern scientific enterprise. We need to be broad and inclusive, rather than narrow and exclusive&nbsp;... and we should expect that the farther back we go [in time] the broader we will need to be." &nbsp;p.3—{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = Science before the Greeks | title= The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context | pages = 1–20 | edition = Second | location = Chicago, Illinois | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref><ref name="Grant2007a">{{cite book | last= Grant| first= Edward | year = 2007 | chapter = Ancient Egypt to Plato | title= A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century | url= https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran| url-access= limited| pages = [https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran/page/n16 1]–26 | edition = First | location = New York, New York | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-052-1-68957-1}}</ref> Their contributions to [[Wikipedia:mathematics|mathematics]], [[Wikipedia:astronomy|astronomy]], and [[medicine]] entered and shaped Greek [[Wikipedia:natural philosophy|natural philosophy]] of [[Wikipedia:classical antiquity|classical antiquity]], whereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the [[Wikipedia:Universe|physical world]] based on natural causes.<ref name="Lindberg1" /><ref name="Grant2007a" /> After the [[Wikipedia:fall of the Western Roman Empire|fall of the Western Roman Empire]], knowledge of [[Wikipedia:History of science in classical antiquity|Greek conceptions of the world]] deteriorated in [[Wikipedia:Western Europe|Western Europe]] during the early centuries (400 to 1000 CE) of the [[Wikipedia:Middle Ages|Middle Ages]],<ref name="Lindberg9">{{cite book | last = Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = The revival of learning in the West | title=The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context | pages = 193–224 | edition = Second | location = Chicago, Illinois | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn=978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref> but was preserved in the [[Wikipedia:Muslim world|Muslim world]] during the [[Wikipedia:Islamic Golden Age|Islamic Golden Age]].<ref name="Lindberg8">{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = Islamic science | title= The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context | pages = 163–92 | edition = Second | location = Chicago, Illinois | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn=978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref> The recovery and assimilation of [[Wikipedia:Ancient Greek literature|Greek works]] and [[Wikipedia:Science in the medieval Islamic world|Islamic inquiries]] into Western Europe from the 10th to 13th century revived "[[Wikipedia:natural philosophy|natural philosophy]]",<ref name="Lindberg9" /><ref name="Lindberg10">{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = The recovery and assimilation of Greek and Islamic science | title= The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context | pages= 225–53| edition = 2nd | location = Chicago, Illinois | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref> which was later transformed by the [[Wikipedia:Scientific Revolution|Scientific Revolution]] that began in the 16th century<ref name="Principe2011">{{cite book | last= Principe | first= Lawrence M. | year = 2011 | chapter = Introduction | title = Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction | pages = 1–3 | edition = First | location = New York, New York | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn= 978-0-199-56741-6}}</ref> as [[Wikipedia:Scientific Revolution#New ideas|new ideas and discoveries]] departed from [[Wikipedia:Scientific Revolution#Ancient and medieval background|previous Greek conceptions]] and traditions.<ref name="Lindberg1990">{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 1990 | chapter = Conceptions of the Scientific Revolution from Baker to Butterfield: A preliminary sketch | title=Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution | editor-first1 = David C. | editor-last1 = Lindberg | editor-first2 = Robert S. | editor-last2 = Westman | pages = 1–26 | edition = First | location = Chicago, Illinois | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-0-521-34262-9}}</ref><ref name="Lindberg14">{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = The legacy of ancient and medieval science | title= The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context | pages= 357–368| edition = 2nd | location = Chicago, Illinois | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref><ref name="Stanford Encyclopedia">{{Cite book|url= https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2016/entries/natphil-ren/|title= The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|last= Del Soldato|first= Eva|date= 2016|publisher= Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|editor-last= Zalta|editor-first= Edward N.|edition= Fall 2016|access-date= June 1, 2018|archive-date= December 11, 2019|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191211205744/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2016/entries/natphil-ren/|url-status= live}}</ref><ref name="Grant2007c">{{cite book | last= Grant | first = Edward | year = 2007 | chapter = Transformation of medieval natural philosophy from the early period modern period to the end of the nineteenth century | title= A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century | url= https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran | url-access= limited | pages = [https://archive.org/details/historynaturalph00gran/page/n289 274]–322 | edition = First | location = New York, New York | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn= 978-052-1-68957-1}}</ref> The [[Wikipedia:scientific method|scientific method]] soon played a greater role in knowledge creation and it was not until the [[Wikipedia:19th century in science|19th century]] that many of the institutional and [[Wikipedia:Scientist|professional]] features of science began to take shape;<ref name="Cahan Natural Philosophy">{{cite book | editor1-last= Cahan | editor1-first= David | title= From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science | date= 2003 | publisher= University of Chicago Press | location= Chicago, Illinois |isbn= 978-0-226-08928-7}}</ref><ref>The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' dates the origin of the word "scientist" to 1834.</ref><ref name="Lightman 19th" /> along with the changing of "natural philosophy" to "natural science."<ref>{{cite book| last1 = Harrison| first1 = Peter| author-link1 = Peter Harrison (historian)| title = The Territories of Science and Religion| location = Chicago| publisher = University of Chicago Press| date = 2015| pages = 164–165| isbn = 978-0-226-18451-7| quote = The changing character of those engaged in scientific endeavors was matched by a new nomenclature for their endeavors. The most conspicuous marker of this change was the replacement of "natural philosophy" by "natural science". In 1800 few had spoken of the "natural sciences" but by 1880, this expression had overtaken the traditional label "natural philosophy". The persistence of "natural philosophy" in the twentieth century is owing largely to historical references to a past practice (see figure 11). As should now be apparent, this was not simply the substitution of one term by another, but involved the jettisoning of a range of personal qualities relating to the conduct of philosophy and the living of the philosophical life.}}</ref>

[[History of science#Scientific Revolution and birth of New Science|Modern science]] is typically divided into three major [[Branches of science|branches]]<ref name="cohen2021">{{cite book | last = Cohen | first = Eliel | year = 2021 | chapter = The boundary lens: theorising academic actitity | title = The University and its Boundaries: Thriving or Surviving in the 21st Century 1st Edition | url = https://www.routledge.com/The-University-and-its-Boundaries-Thriving-or-Surviving-in-the-21st-Century/Cohen/p/book/9780367562984 | pages = 14–41 | publisher = Routledge | location = New York, New York | isbn = 978-0367562984 }}</ref> that consist of the [[natural science]]s (e.g., [[biology]], [[chemistry]], and [[physics]]), which study nature in the broadest sense; the [[social science]]s (e.g., [[economics]], [[psychology]], and [[sociology]]), which study individuals and societies;<ref name="colanderhunt2019">{{cite book | last1 = Colander | first1 = David C. | last2 = Hunt | first2 = Elgin F. | chapter = Social science and its methods | title = Social Science: An Introduction to the Study of Society | publisher = Routledge | edition = 17th | date = 2019 | location = New York, NY | pages = 1–22 }}</ref><ref name="nisbetgreenfeld2021">{{cite encyclopedia | last1 = Nisbet | first1 = Robert A. | last2 = Greenfeld | first2 = Liah | title = Social Science | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia Britannica | url = https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-science | publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. | date = 16 October 2020 | access-date = 9 May 2021}}</ref> and the [[formal science]]s (e.g., [[logic]], [[mathematics]], and [[theoretical computer science]]), which deal with symbols governed by rules.<ref name="löwe2002">{{cite journal | last = Löwe | first = Benedikt | author-link = Benedikt Löwe | date = 2002 | title = The formal sciences: their scope, their foundations, and their unity | journal = Synthese | volume = 133 | issue = 1/2 | pages = 5–11 | doi = 10.1023/A:1020887832028 | s2cid = 9272212 }}</ref><ref name="rucker2019">{{cite book | last = Rucker | first = Rudy | author-link = Rudy_Rucker | year = 2019 | chapter = Robots and souls | title = Infinity and the Mind: The Science and Philosophy of the Infinite | url = http://www.rudyrucker.com/infinityandthemind/#calibre_link-328 | pages = 157–188 | edition = Reprint | publisher = Princeton University Press | location = Princeton, New Jersey | isbn = 978-0691191386 }}</ref> There is disagreement,<ref name="Bishop1991">{{cite book | last1 = Bishop | first1 = Alan | year = 1991 | chapter = Environmental activities and mathematical culture | title = Mathematical Enculturation: A Cultural Perspective on Mathematics Education | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9AgrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA54 | pages = 20–59 | location = Norwell, Massachusetts | publisher = Kluwer Academic Publishers | isbn = 978-0-792-31270-3 | access-date = March 24, 2018 | archive-date = December 25, 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201225195821/https://books.google.com/books?id=9AgrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA54 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="nickles2013">{{cite book | last1 = Nickles | first1 = Thomas | year = 2013 | chapter = The Problem of Demarcation | title = Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem | page = 104 | location = Chicago | publisher = The University of Chicago Press}}</ref><ref name="Bunge 1998">{{cite book| title= Philosophy of Science: Volume 1, From Problem to Theory |last1= Bunge|first1= Mario| date= 1998 | publisher= Routledge |isbn=978-0-765-80413-6| edition= revised |volume= 1 |location= New York, New York | pages= 3–50 | chapter = The Scientific Approach}}</ref> however, on whether the formal sciences actually constitute a science as they do not rely on [[empirical evidence]].<ref name="Fetzer2013">{{cite book | last1 = Fetzer | first1 = James H. | year = 2013 | chapter = Computer reliability and public policy: Limits of knowledge of computer-based systems | title = Computers and Cognition: Why Minds are not Machines | pages = 271–308 | edition = 1st | location = Newcastle, United Kingdom | publisher = Kluwer Academic Publishers | isbn = 978-1-443-81946-6 }}</ref><ref name="nickles2013" /> Disciplines that use existing scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as [[engineering]] and medicine, are described as [[applied science]]s.<ref name="fischer2014">{{Cite journal|doi=10.3205/zma000916|pmc=4027809|pmid=24872859|year= 2014|last1= Fischer|first1= M.R.|title= Thinking and acting scientifically: Indispensable basis of medical education|journal= GMS Zeitschrift für Medizinische Ausbildung |volume= 31|issue= 2|pages= Doc24|last2= Fabry|first2= G}}</ref><ref name="abraham2004">{{Cite journal |last=Abraham |first=Reem Rachel |title=Clinically oriented physiology teaching: strategy for developing critical-thinking skills in undergraduate medical students |journal=Advances in Physiology Education |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=102–04 |doi=10.1152/advan.00001.2004 |pmid=15319191 |year=2004 |s2cid=21610124 |url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/3c0b0e54f94afbbcf003714f5ed8f8db1ecc72b0 |access-date=December 4, 2019 |archive-date=January 22, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200122134405/https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Clinically-oriented-physiology-teaching%3A-strategy-Abraham-Upadhya/4e211a2ff57651ca358c265f54b0dcb6404bb94a |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="sinclair1993">{{Cite journal|last= Sinclair|first= Marius|year= 1993|title= On the Differences between the Engineering and Scientific Methods|url= https://www.ijee.ie/contents/c090593.html|journal= The International Journal of Engineering Education|access-date= September 7, 2018|archive-date= November 15, 2017|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171115220102/https://www.ijee.ie/contents/c090593.html|url-status= live}}</ref><ref name="purdue2018">{{Cite web| title = About Engineering Technology| work = Purdue School of Engineering & Technology|access-date=September 7, 2018| url = https://et.iupui.edu/departments/ent/about/index.php| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190522220533/http://www.engr.iupui.edu/departments/ent/about/index.php| archive-date=May 22, 2019}}</ref><ref name="mbunge1966">{{Cite book | last = Bunge | first = M | year = 1966 | chapter = Technology as applied science | title = Contributions to a Philosophy of Technology. Theory and Decision Library (An International Series in the Philosophy and Methodology of the Social and Behavioral Sciences) | pages = 19–39 | url = https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-2182-1_2 | editor-last = Rapp | editor-first = F. | publisher = Springer | location = Dordrecht, Netherlands | doi = 10.1007/978-94-010-2182-1_2 | isbn = 978-94-010-2184-5 | access-date = March 25, 2021 | archive-date = March 31, 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210331144907/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-94-010-2182-1_2 | url-status = live }}</ref>

[[Wikipedia:History of science#Scientific Revolution and birth of New Science|Modern science]] is typically divided into three major [[Wikipedia:Branches of science|branches]]<ref name="cohen2021">{{cite book | last = Cohen | first = Eliel | year = 2021 | chapter = The boundary lens: theorising academic actitity | title = The University and its Boundaries: Thriving or Surviving in the 21st Century 1st Edition | url = https://www.routledge.com/The-University-and-its-Boundaries-Thriving-or-Surviving-in-the-21st-Century/Cohen/p/book/9780367562984 | pages = 14–41 | publisher = Routledge | location = New York, New York | isbn = 978-0367562984 }}</ref> that consist of the [[Wikipedia:natural science|natural science]]s (e.g., [[Wikipedia:biology|biology]], [[Wikipedia:chemistry|chemistry]], and [[Wikipedia:physics|physics]]), which study nature in the broadest sense; the [[Wikipedia:social science|social science]]s (e.g., [[Wikipedia:economics|economics]], [[Wikipedia:psychology|psychology]], and [[Wikipedia:sociology|sociology]]), which study individuals and societies;<ref name="colanderhunt2019">{{cite book | last1 = Colander | first1 = David C. | last2 = Hunt | first2 = Elgin F. | chapter = Social science and its methods | title = Social Science: An Introduction to the Study of Society | publisher = Routledge | edition = 17th | date = 2019 | location = New York, NY | pages = 1–22 }}</ref><ref name="nisbetgreenfeld2021">{{cite encyclopedia | last1 = Nisbet | first1 = Robert A. | last2 = Greenfeld | first2 = Liah | title = Social Science | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia Britannica | url = https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-science | publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. | date = 16 October 2020 | access-date = 9 May 2021}}</ref> and the [[Wikipedia:formal science|formal science]]s (e.g., [[Wikipedia:logic|logic]], [[Wikipedia:mathematics|mathematics]], and [[Wikipedia:theoretical computer science|theoretical computer science]]), which deal with symbols governed by rules.<ref name="löwe2002">{{cite journal | last = Löwe | first = Benedikt | author-link = Benedikt Löwe | date = 2002 | title = The formal sciences: their scope, their foundations, and their unity | journal = Synthese | volume = 133 | issue = 1/2 | pages = 5–11 | doi = 10.1023/A:1020887832028 | s2cid = 9272212 }}</ref><ref name="rucker2019">{{cite book | last = Rucker | first = Rudy | author-link = Rudy_Rucker | year = 2019 | chapter = Robots and souls | title = Infinity and the Mind: The Science and Philosophy of the Infinite | url = http://www.rudyrucker.com/infinityandthemind/#calibre_link-328 | pages = 157–188 | edition = Reprint | publisher = Princeton University Press | location = Princeton, New Jersey | isbn = 978-0691191386 }}</ref> There is disagreement,<ref name="Bishop1991">{{cite book | last1 = Bishop | first1 = Alan | year = 1991 | chapter = Environmental activities and mathematical culture | title = Mathematical Enculturation: A Cultural Perspective on Mathematics Education | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9AgrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA54 | pages = 20–59 | location = Norwell, Massachusetts | publisher = Kluwer Academic Publishers | isbn = 978-0-792-31270-3 | access-date = March 24, 2018 | archive-date = December 25, 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201225195821/https://books.google.com/books?id=9AgrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA54 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="nickles2013">{{cite book | last1 = Nickles | first1 = Thomas | year = 2013 | chapter = The Problem of Demarcation | title = Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem | page = 104 | location = Chicago | publisher = The University of Chicago Press}}</ref><ref name="Bunge 1998">{{cite book| title= Philosophy of Science: Volume 1, From Problem to Theory |last1= Bunge|first1= Mario| date= 1998 | publisher= Routledge |isbn=978-0-765-80413-6| edition= revised |volume= 1 |location= New York, New York | pages= 3–50 | chapter = The Scientific Approach}}</ref> however, on whether the formal sciences actually constitute a science as they do not rely on [[Wikipedia:empirical evidence|empirical evidence]].<ref name="Fetzer2013">{{cite book | last1 = Fetzer | first1 = James H. | year = 2013 | chapter = Computer reliability and public policy: Limits of knowledge of computer-based systems | title = Computers and Cognition: Why Minds are not Machines | pages = 271–308 | edition = 1st | location = Newcastle, United Kingdom | publisher = Kluwer Academic Publishers | isbn = 978-1-443-81946-6 }}</ref><ref name="nickles2013" /> Disciplines that use existing scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as [[Wikipedia:engineering|engineering]] and medicine, are described as [[Wikipedia:applied science|applied science]]s.<ref name="fischer2014">{{Cite journal|doi=10.3205/zma000916|pmc=4027809|pmid=24872859|year= 2014|last1= Fischer|first1= M.R.|title= Thinking and acting scientifically: Indispensable basis of medical education|journal= GMS Zeitschrift für Medizinische Ausbildung |volume= 31|issue= 2|pages= Doc24|last2= Fabry|first2= G}}</ref><ref name="abraham2004">{{Cite journal |last=Abraham |first=Reem Rachel |title=Clinically oriented physiology teaching: strategy for developing critical-thinking skills in undergraduate medical students |journal=Advances in Physiology Education |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=102–04 |doi=10.1152/advan.00001.2004 |pmid=15319191 |year=2004 |s2cid=21610124 |url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/3c0b0e54f94afbbcf003714f5ed8f8db1ecc72b0 |access-date=December 4, 2019 |archive-date=January 22, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200122134405/https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Clinically-oriented-physiology-teaching%3A-strategy-Abraham-Upadhya/4e211a2ff57651ca358c265f54b0dcb6404bb94a |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="sinclair1993">{{Cite journal|last= Sinclair|first= Marius|year= 1993|title= On the Differences between the Engineering and Scientific Methods|url= https://www.ijee.ie/contents/c090593.html|journal= The International Journal of Engineering Education|access-date= September 7, 2018|archive-date= November 15, 2017|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171115220102/https://www.ijee.ie/contents/c090593.html|url-status= live}}</ref><ref name="purdue2018">{{Cite web| title = About Engineering Technology| work = Purdue School of Engineering & Technology|access-date=September 7, 2018| url = https://et.iupui.edu/departments/ent/about/index.php| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190522220533/http://www.engr.iupui.edu/departments/ent/about/index.php| archive-date=May 22, 2019}}</ref><ref name="mbunge1966">{{Cite book | last = Bunge | first = M | year = 1966 | chapter = Technology as applied science | title = Contributions to a Philosophy of Technology. Theory and Decision Library (An International Series in the Philosophy and Methodology of the Social and Behavioral Sciences) | pages = 19–39 | url = https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-2182-1_2 | editor-last = Rapp | editor-first = F. | publisher = Springer | location = Dordrecht, Netherlands | doi = 10.1007/978-94-010-2182-1_2 | isbn = 978-94-010-2184-5 | access-date = March 25, 2021 | archive-date = March 31, 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210331144907/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-94-010-2182-1_2 | url-status = live }}</ref>

New knowledge in science is advanced by [[research]] from [[scientist]]s who are motivated by curiosity about the world and a desire to solve problems.<ref name="macritchie2011">{{cite book | last = MacRitchie | first = Finlay | year = 2011 | chapter = Introduction | title = Scientific Research as a Career | edition = 1st | url = https://www.routledge.com/Scientific-Research-as-a-Career/MacRitchie/p/book/9781439869659 | pages = 1–6 | publisher = Routledge | location = New York, New York | isbn = 9781439869659}}</ref><ref name="marder2011">{{cite book | last = Marder| first = Michael P. | year = 2011 | chapter = Curiosity and research | title = Research Methods for Science | edition = 1st | url = https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/research-methods-for-science/1C04E5D747781B68C52A79EE86BF584B | pages = 1–17 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = New York, New York | isbn = 978-0521145848}}</ref> Contemporary scientific research is highly collaborative and is usually done by teams in [[Academic institution|academic]] and [[research institute|research institutions]],<ref name="deridder2020">{{cite book | last = de Ridder | first = Jeroen | year = 2020 | chapter = How many scientists does it take to have knowledge? | title = What is Scientific Knowledge? An Introduction to Contemporary Epistemology of Science | editor-last1 = McCain | editor-first1 = Kevin | editor-last2 = Kampourakis | editor-first2 = Kostas | edition = 1st | url = https://www.routledge.com/What-is-Scientific-Knowledge-An-Introduction-to-Contemporary-Epistemology/McCain-Kampourakis/p/book/9781138570153 | pages = 3–17 | publisher = Routledge | location = New York, New York | isbn = 9781138570160}}</ref> [[Government agency|government agencies]], and [[Company|companies]].<ref name="lindberg2007h">{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = Islamic science | title = The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context | pages = 163–192 | edition = Second | location = Chicago, Illinois | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref><ref name="gertner2013">{{cite book | last = Szycher | first = Michael | year = 2016 | chapter = Establishing your dream team | title = Commercialization Secrets for Scientists and Engineers | edition = 1st | url = https://www.routledge.com/Commercialization-Secrets-for-Scientists-and-Engineers/Szycher/p/book/9781498730600 | pages = 159–176 | publisher = Routledge | location = New York, New York | isbn = 978-1138407411}}</ref> The practical impact of their work has led to the emergence of [[science policy|science policies]] that seek to influence the scientific enterprise by prioritizing the development of [[Product (business)|commercial products]], [[weapon|armaments]], [[health care]], [[public infrastructure]], and [[environmental protection]].

New knowledge in science is advanced by [[Wikipedia:research|research]] from [[Wikipedia:scientist|scientist]]s who are motivated by curiosity about the world and a desire to solve problems.<ref name="macritchie2011">{{cite book | last = MacRitchie | first = Finlay | year = 2011 | chapter = Introduction | title = Scientific Research as a Career | edition = 1st | url = https://www.routledge.com/Scientific-Research-as-a-Career/MacRitchie/p/book/9781439869659 | pages = 1–6 | publisher = Routledge | location = New York, New York | isbn = 9781439869659}}</ref><ref name="marder2011">{{cite book | last = Marder| first = Michael P. | year = 2011 | chapter = Curiosity and research | title = Research Methods for Science | edition = 1st | url = https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/research-methods-for-science/1C04E5D747781B68C52A79EE86BF584B | pages = 1–17 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = New York, New York | isbn = 978-0521145848}}</ref> Contemporary scientific research is highly collaborative and is usually done by teams in [[Wikipedia:Academic institution|academic]] and [[Wikipedia:research institute|research institutions]],<ref name="deridder2020">{{cite book | last = de Ridder | first = Jeroen | year = 2020 | chapter = How many scientists does it take to have knowledge? | title = What is Scientific Knowledge? An Introduction to Contemporary Epistemology of Science | editor-last1 = McCain | editor-first1 = Kevin | editor-last2 = Kampourakis | editor-first2 = Kostas | edition = 1st | url = https://www.routledge.com/What-is-Scientific-Knowledge-An-Introduction-to-Contemporary-Epistemology/McCain-Kampourakis/p/book/9781138570153 | pages = 3–17 | publisher = Routledge | location = New York, New York | isbn = 9781138570160}}</ref> [[Wikipedia:Government agency|government agencies]], and [[Wikipedia:Company|companies]].<ref name="lindberg2007h">{{cite book | last= Lindberg | first= David C. | year = 2007 | chapter = Islamic science | title = The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context | pages = 163–192 | edition = Second | location = Chicago, Illinois | publisher = University of Chicago Press | isbn= 978-0-226-48205-7}}</ref><ref name="gertner2013">{{cite book | last = Szycher | first = Michael | year = 2016 | chapter = Establishing your dream team | title = Commercialization Secrets for Scientists and Engineers | edition = 1st | url = https://www.routledge.com/Commercialization-Secrets-for-Scientists-and-Engineers/Szycher/p/book/9781498730600 | pages = 159–176 | publisher = Routledge | location = New York, New York | isbn = 978-1138407411}}</ref> The practical impact of their work has led to the emergence of [[Wikipedia:science policy|science policies]] that seek to influence the scientific enterprise by prioritizing the development of [[Wikipedia:Product (business)|commercial products]], [[Wikipedia:weapon|armaments]], [[Wikipedia:health care|health care]], [[Wikipedia:public infrastructure|public infrastructure]], and [[Wikipedia:environmental protection|environmental protection]].

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